Feminism Ideas, Beliefs, and Movements

Feminism is a complex set of ideologies and theories, that at its core seeks to achieve equal social, political, and economic rights for women and men. Feminism refers to a diverse variety of beliefs, ideas, movements, and agendas for action. It refers to any actions, especially organized, that promote changes in society to end patterns that have disadvantaged women. The Origin of the Word Feminism While it is common to see the word feminist used for figures such as Mary Wollstonecraft  (1759–1797), the terms feminist and feminism were not used in the modern sense until a century after her 1792 book A Vindication of the Rights of Women was published. The term first appeared during the 1870s in France as fà ©minisme—although there has been some speculation that it may have been used before then. At the time, the word referred to womens freedom or emancipation. In 1882, Hubertine Auclert, a leading French feminist and a campaigner for womens suffrage, used the term fà ©ministe to describe herself and others working for womens freedom. In 1892, a congress in Paris was described as feminist. This launched a more widespread adoption of the term in the 1890s, with its use appearing in Great Britain and then America beginning about 1894. Feminism and Society Almost all modern societal structures are patriarchal and are constructed in such a way that men are the dominant force in making the majority of political, economic, and cultural decisions. Feminism focuses on the idea that since women comprise one-half of the world population, true social progress can never be achieved without the complete and spontaneous participation of women. Feminist ideals and beliefs focus on what culture is like for women as compared to what the world is like for men. The feminist assumption is that women are not treated equally to men and as a result, women are disadvantaged in comparison to men. Feminist ideology considers in which ways culture can and should be different between genders: Do different genders have different goals, ideals, and visions? Theres a great deal of value placed on the importance of moving from point A (the status quo) to point B (female equality) through a statement of commitment to behavior and action to produce that change. Feminism and Sexuality One arena in which women have long been oppressed is with regard to sexuality, which includes behavior, interactions with men, posture, and exposure of the body. In traditional societies, men are expected to be the commanders, standing tall and allowing their physical presence to represent their role in society, while women are expected to be quieter and more subservient. Under such societal conventions, women are not supposed to take up much space at the table, and most certainly, they should not be seen as a distraction to the men around them. Feminism seeks to embrace female sexuality and celebrate it, as opposed to so many societal conventions that condemn women who are sexually aware and empowered. The practice of elevating sexually active men while denigrating sexually women creates a double standard between the genders. Women are shunned for having multiple sexual partners, whereas men are celebrated for the same behaviors. Women have long been subjected to sexual objectification by men. Many cultures still cling to the notion that women must dress so as to not arouse men, and in many societies, women are required to fully cover their bodies. On the other hand, in some so-called enlightened societies, female sexuality is routinely exploited in the mass media. Scantily clad women in advertising and full nudity in movies and television are commonplace—and yet, many women are shamed for breastfeeding in public. These conflicting views on female sexuality create a confusing landscape of expectations that women and men must navigate on a daily basis. Feminism in the Workforce There are many differences within the constellation of feminist ideals, groups, and movements related to workplace unfairness, discrimination, and oppression that result from the real disadvantages women experience. Feminism assumes that  sexism, which disadvantages and/or oppresses those identified as women, is not desirable and should be eliminated, however, it continues to be an issue in the workplace. Unequal salaries are still pervasive in the workforce. Despite the Equal Pay Act of 1963, on average, a woman still earns only 80.5 cents for every dollar a man earns. According to  data from the U.S. Census Bureau, womens median annual earnings in 2017 were $14,910 less than that of their male counterparts. What Feminism Is and What it Isnt There is a common misconception that feminists are reverse sexists, however, unlike male sexists who oppress women, feminists do not seek to oppress men. Rather, they seek equal compensation, opportunities, and treatment for both genders. Feminism seeks to achieve equal treatment and opportunity for women and men in order to achieve similar opportunities across different fields of work and culture and equal respect in a variety of roles. Feminists theorists often explore the concepts with regard to which of womens experiences are taken as normative: Do women of different races, classes, age groups, etc. experience inequality in significantly different ways or is the common experience as women more important? The goal of feminism is to create non-discrimination, which is essential for creating equality to ensure that no one is denied their rights due to factors such as race, gender, language, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, political or other beliefs, nationality, social origin, class, or wealth status. Further Study At the end of the day, feminism is an umbrella term that covers a number of different beliefs. The following list provides examples of a variety of feminist and ideologies and practices. Social FeminismLiberal FeminismSocialist FeminismRadical FeminismCultural FeminismThird-Wave FeminismIntersectional Feminism

Cowboys and Aliens Directed by Jon Favreau - 1268 Words

Cowboys and Aliens (2011) directed by Jon Favreau, takes place in a Western style setting in New Mexico territory. Jake Lonergan (Daniel Craig) wakes up in the middle of the desert severely injured with no recollection as to why he is in pain. At this point he notices the scientific and advanced technology attached to his wrist. This strange mechanical device immediately incorporates the science fiction aspect to a clearly western style film. After killing three men who were attempting to attack him, he steals their clothes, a horse, and guns so he can ride into town. From there he discovers he is a wanted man, is taken to jail, and eventually escapes. Lonergan finds his way to an abandoned cabin where he experiences a flashback explaining that he used to steal gold and has a love interest. Alice (Abigail Spencer), his lover, pleads to him to return the gold, and immediately after she says this, aliens abduct both of them. After these events, the aliens abduct multiple people from th e town leading Lonergan to join up with Colonel Woodrow (Harrison Ford), Ella Swenson (Olivia Wilde), Doc (Sam Rockwell), Nat Colorado (Adam Beache), and many more loyal followers. Together, these characters seek to take back their loved ones, fight off the alien forces, and regain control of the land being invaded. Cowboys and Aliens (2011) has multiple conventions giving the film both a clear Western and Science Fiction feel through common iconographic elements. It is very easy to distinguishShow MoreRelatedThe Chef With Jon Favreau2043 Words   |  9 PagesTop Dog and Underdog Do you think you are having a hard month? Have you ever felt like the underdog and you aren’t every going to be on top? Then you should watch the movie The Chef with Jon Favreau. The Chef is a great film about a Head Chef, who quits his high-end restaurant job and buys a food truck to reclaim his creative promise; while piecing back together his estranged family. It is strongly agreed with LA Times writer Gary Goldstein whom stated, â€Å"Warm, dimensional and intuitive, this

Essay on How Much Russia Changed from 1856-1894 - 609 Words

How Much Russia Changed from 1856-1894 During the years of 1856 and 1894, Russia changed immensely in its policies and general state. It went from being an ageing superpower into a country with internal problems and an ambience of civilian unrest. Alexander II realised the need to modernise Russia in order to prolong their status as a superpower. This stemmed from their defeat in the Crimean war. To modernise and industrialise Russia, a free workforce was needed and this could only be made available if people were freed from the land. This meant that Alexander II would need to somehow release the serfs from their owner’s land. Another reason for emancipation was made clear in a quote from†¦show more content†¦However, not all of Russia’s problems were solved and indeed some of the reforms created new problems. But generally, Russia changed a great deal during Alexander II’s reign and the majority of change was constructive. Alexander III was faced with a number of dilemmas when he came to power. The assassination of his father had a huge impact on him. He believed that all attempts at reform were futile and so followed a policy of counter-reform. His repressive measures became known as â€Å"the Reaction†. Some examples include Russification, where national minority influence was limited and the Statue of State Security, where judges, magistrates and officials sympathetic to liberal ideology were removed. During Alexander III’s reign, opposition grew tremendously. This was generally due to Alexander III’s repression, political stagnation and because if they did nothing, there would be no alternative to autocracy. In conclusion, Russia did not make a great deal of progress during Alexander III’s reign. Alexander III dealt with Russia’s problems by using suppression. But this caused more opposition to the tsar as it drove more support towards the violent revolutionary groups. In addition, some historians have said that Alexander III’s policy of suppression stopped Russia’s progression and as such, Russia regressed in terms of positiveShow MoreRelatedThe Mighty Handful2127 Words   |  9 PagesRimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Borodin. The five composers all lived in Saint Petersburg, Russia, and worked together to created amazing works of music from 1856 to 1870. The Mighty Handful got their name from an article entitled Mr. Balakirev’s Slavic Concert, by acclaimed critic Vladimir Stasov which was a concert that was performed for visiting Slavic delegates in May 1867 at the All-Russian Ethnographical Exhibition† in Moscow, Russia. The four Russian compos ers whose worked were featured at the concert wereRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pageslittle significance. But there is little agreement over when the twentieth century c.e. arrived, and there were several points both before the year 2000 (the collapse of the Soviet Union, the reunification of Germany, the surge of globalization from the mid-1990s) and afterward (9/11, or the global recession of 2008) when one could quite plausibly argue that a new era had begun. A compelling case can be made for viewing the decades of the global scramble for colonies after 1870 as a predictableRead MoreManagement Challenges for the 21st Century.Pdf60639 Words   |  243 Pagesemergence of knowledge as the economy’s key resource) will certainly necessitate radically new economic theory and equally radically new economic policy. The book does not concern itself with politics—not even with such crucial questions as whether Russia can and will recover as a political, military and economic power. It sticks with MANAGEMENT ISSUES. There are good reasons for this. The issues this book discusses, the new social, demographic and economic REALITIES, are not issues that GOVERNMENT

intend to expose in their studies how Educational...

intend to expose in their studies how Educational Neuroscience can reshape educational policies and practices in teaching and learning the core content areas, especially in timing and sequencing content exposure. One approach was to study whether exposing a young child to two languages caused delay in language development and language confusion. Studies revealed that the optimal age for dual language development was before age five. Children were not delayed in phonetic contrasts acquisition. Imaging brains of monolingual and bilingual infants revealed that both groups presented similar neural activation. Regarding reading in bilingual children studies showed that children experiencing bilingual education in primary grades outperformed†¦show more content†¦The results are consistent with the notion that both groups exhibit different development of brain networks associated with the control of executive functions. Dr. Tom Schweizer, a neuroscientist in St. Michael Hospital in Canada studied the effects of bilingualism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. He chose a sample of patients with similar background, education, and disease cognitive detriment. Half were monolingual and half were bilingual. Using CT scans and cognitive evaluation he found that even though bilingual patients showed twice as much atrophy, they performed as well in the cognitive test as their monolingual counterparts with less atrophy. This may be explained by the fact that bilingual individuals have developed enhanced neural networks or pathways, also called neural reserve, when switching from one language to another or suppressing one language from another. Dr. Schweizer explains that though bilingualism delays Alzheimer’s progression for about five years it does not prevent it. Alladi, et. Al. in 2013 in an effort to identify the association between bilingualism and age at onset of dementia and its subtypes ran the largest study with case records of 648 patients with dementia (391 of them bilingual) â€Å"The age at onset of first symptoms wasShow MoreRelatedStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesTeams 307 Communication 335 Leadership 367 Power and Politics 411 Conflict and Negotiation 445 Foundations of Organization Structure 479 v vi BRIEF CONTENTS 4 The Organization System 16 Organizational Culture 511 17 Human Resource Policies and Practices 543 18 Organizational Change and Stress Management 577 Appendix A Research in Organizational Behavior Comprehensive Cases Indexes Glindex 637 663 616 623 Contents Preface xxii 1 1 Introduction What Is Organizational

The Presentation of Self in Everyday Free Essays

In his book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Erving Goffman compares life to acting. He argues that â€Å"when the individual is in the immediate presence of others, his activity will have a promissory character† (Goffman 2). I think it is ironic because I always thought that movies or theaters have always tried to imitate reality and not the other way around. We will write a custom essay sample on The Presentation of Self in Everyday or any similar topic only for you Order Now In order to clearly show his analogy, Goffman presents elements of acting such as the front. We are all familiar with the term front act. † In Goffman’s opinion, people are all playing an act. This is such a bold claim to make because he is saying that we are all just performing and not being our real selves, though there are some truths to his claim. What is confusing is when do we really act, or when do we be ourselves? Most of us would not acknowledge his belief that we are playing a character, but then again, the person that denies this may also just be playing a role, and so the question remains unanswered. One idea of Goffman that caught my attention is his theory that people cooperate in an act to cover, say, something embarrassing. I have experienced it myself—I would pretend that I have not witnessed someone undergo an embarrassing moment, although unconsciously, I was not trying to make that person feel the embarrassment more, but rather, I was just trying not to be mean. It did not occur to me that by pretending (and therefore joining in the scene, or rather excluding myself from the scene) not to see the embarrassing act, I have helped in saving that person’s face. What follows is an array of lectures, as it were, like that of a professor teaching a theater or film student, only that his lectures are philosophical and are related to our everyday lives. After reading Goffman’s work, I found myself smiling because of the truths in his analogies that never crossed my mind before. How to cite The Presentation of Self in Everyday, Papers

The Impact of Video Games on Culture Free Essays

Popular culture, also known as ‘Pop Culture’ may refer to many as our modern day  lifestyle in the world we live in, which is recognised and accepted by our society as a whole. These cultural patterns are commonly used as driven movements that are influenced by many aspects of todays society such as music, movies and other modern day technologies. The opinion on pop culture can be seen as a useful expression on our society and the prevailing environment, as pop culture is the culture which is followed by the majority, and therefore reflects society as a whole. We will write a custom essay sample on The Impact of Video Games on Culture or any similar topic only for you Order Now However we neglect to think about just how much video games actually influence, shape, and impact our culture, history, and way of life. Gaming plays an important part in our lives. It is often through the meaning that we substantiate our sense and self place in life. Gaming can become an indicator of our personal values and belief in the culture which we are apart of. The association of gaming allows for individuals to reveal connections which we make with our culture in an intimate way. Gaming in context of our culture, includes everything in everyday life, from consoles, computers to even mobile devices. It can display many aspects of our how we spend our social lives from working hours to leisure times. Pop culture can be seen as a strange thing, affecting us by the day to day events of the world it truely does throw some unique moments in our lives whilst also being considered strangely static in many ways however needless to say big change does usually comes with the implementation of new forms of media. To fully understand the effects of video games on mainstream culture, it is important to understand the development of the culture surrounding video games itself. Culture may refer to as the customary beliefs, social forms, material traits of a racial, religious, or social groups one may choose to live their life. The word ‘culture’ itself comes from a latin term ‘colere,’ which refers to the cultivation and nurture of earth growing. Objects such as video game consoles can help substantiate and give cultural meaning to individuals, which allows for cultural flows and open ideas to form for the people that use the platform. Over the past four decades since gamings first appearance in 1958 when developed by William Higginbotham, they have become such a stagnant and significantly impacted industrially in the area of Australian popular culture and has shaped a pathway in which modern day society has developed around. However it is not to say that when they first appeared they took the world by storm. In fact it was not until the early seventies where their real gain in popularity grew, with some of the introductions of games such as Pac-man, Pong and Frogger hit the shelves. As video game arcades and the home video game consoles gained in popularity, youth culture quickly adapted to this type of media, engaging in competitions to gain high scores and spending hours at the arcade or with the home console. This was considered the ‘Golden Age’ of gaming as a culture. It was at this time we saw a technical and creative design video game were depicted in arcades. These games were designed utilising a wide variety of genres, which developers worked hard within those strict limits due to the processing power and memory space that was available at the time. These arcades started to make its mainstream appearances in supermarkets, liquor stores, and petrol stations and or other many retail establishments that were interested in looking for extra incomes to their growing businesses. After the enormous success of those video games many developers hopped on board developing more projects, even if it were simply just copying games such as space invaders. Gaming and video games itself may not seem as important as other modern day convinces, however it still holds up some valuable traits in our culture and history, the effect of video games on mainstream culture is important, they are very much like books or films. Its has values that have helped shape the way what video games have become today, its basic nature of invention and innovation has kept teens engaged in the home console for decades due to its simplistic principles that are implanted in the games we play  today. Unfortunately due to the emphasis of its gameplay at the time of development is why many of these projects were discontinued and gaming became more advanced by the vastly outdated modern computing technologies we use today. Following the widespread adoption of the digital age, the consumption of video games have partaken the longest time in many children’s social lives, joining the other major masses in our media, which is taking over children’s time and attention. Today games are available in arcades, shopping centres and for the millions of children around the world, in their own homes due to their cheaply affordability. As children, many hours are spent within school grounds, whether it be showing up late to class, skimming through social media pretending to do school work or being physically active outside at recess or lunch times, majority of kids cannot wait until they get home to sit endless hours behind closed doors playing video games with our friends. Video games play a integral part in an individuals life, even if we have not realised it yet. The issue that surrounds time management as a whole sees children procrastinate when it came to the dreaded words of â€Å"homework† on a weekend, telling their parents they would complete it later, even if it were to sink a few more hours into that glorious Playstation or Xbox that was calling. The state to online multiplayer games in the twenty first century has made the gaming experience for an individual less dull and dreary, and can be seen as the icing on the cake. The online network features to a console and or PC when gaming give the release titles element of success, allowing for players to play virtually with their friends and or family. Whether this be by killing the bad guys on Call of Duties Multiplayer, running through red lights on Grand Theft Auto Online and or scoring the match winning goal against your friend on Fifa in Ultimate teams, video games only give a short glimpse into what it would feel like, look like, be like. Giving those children a sense and feeling of the tedious reality that they were in fact being drawn into. The Critical theory behind computer games visualises gaming as a whole can more often than not correlate with Theodor W. Adorno’s theory. The field itself in the cultural industry shows the concepts utilised in Adorno’s theory, which was evolved into perspectives that focuses on studies that organisations use to create books, film and TV. Unfortunately for video games they are given lack of acknowledgement within the cultural industry even though the younger generation of online media production receives significantly more attention. The Video game industry shows many similarities to to the cultural industry in regards to its structures and dynamics it does not however qualify from a theoretical point of view. Adorno believed it was only childish for individuals to consume their brains mental abilities capacity on wasteful and unresourceful leisure activities. He’s thought leisure time should not be for things such as relaxing and take ones mind off things instead expand and develop the human brain to reach our fullest potential and to a positive contribution to our society and develop the world as a whole. The Cultural industry was built for many distractions keeping one clueless, and intimated on why things really should matter. The thought and idea of utilising video games as a leisure activity may seem very harmless to the individuals mine allowing them to take their mind off the reality and challenges that the world really throws at us. In this games themselves have also been marketed to the idea of merchandises being sold with the games logos and main characters. With its highly public recognition some of these game titles and characters has made them into household names which we in which we see today drawing individuals into this subcultural world. It was also seen the entertainment that we consume such as the Saturday morning cartoons were made out of these video game characters, like Pac-Man  and  Super Mario Bros. This helped target the younger generation of gamers as well, broadening its audience by granting these character the centre of attention for it’s wider and expanding audience to grow. With the introductions of new trends in popular culture there can also be a negative influence that comes along with it. While research itself does not claim that video games have a direct influence that cause violence and or crime, these behaviours still do occur within video games nevertheless. While most of these are outstanding narratives some of these scenes that partake in the game itself do follow some of these crimes committed against other individuals in the real world. It is demonstrated and illustrated that virtual worlds can make a significant impact in the way in which crimes can be reproduced. Crimes within video games itself are almost as old and shared online like virtual environments itself. Avatars and gamer-tags are perfect example for a transition in such a crime field world to claim violations against, giving players full customisation of how they are represented in the online world can often than not come off as a threat or not. Although crimes are a very rare within this form of media it also does however suggest new ways and motives for criminal activity and present some aspects our everyday life. Whatever one may think of Gaming and its presence and growth within the modern day popular culture, it truely does demonstrate just how far video games have come to be a dominant face within our modern day society. It’s influence on other media platforms and apart of our everyday life. These impacts and trends appear to be lessening; with the introduction newer technologies on the rise, which including the greater screen resolutions and aspect ratios, faster processors, better artificial intelligence algorithms and more sophisticated procedural generation techniques such as the increasingly immerse user interfaces like the Virtual Reality Oculus Rift. However it is unknown how much impact video games will actually have on our culture still remains to be seen. With the extremely raid development and widespread adoption of this form of media, the technology has made consumers feel like they are playing it catch up or trying to understand the implications that the technology provides. Appearing in so many different forms and configurations in our media they have surpassed what was previously referred to by both of the terms ‘video’ and ‘games’, is still a growing part of our culture, and has begun to steer culture as well, helping it to redefine what is really popular in our culture. How to cite The Impact of Video Games on Culture, Papers

Analysis of Content Motivation Theories free essay sample

This paper is an analysis of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory, Herzberg’s Motivators- Hygiene theory and Alderfer’s ERG theory. The main similarity among them is they focus on identifying various needs which motivate an individual. It explains motivated performance as individual efforts to meet the needs. These theories provides the way how organization should motivate their employee to achieve optimum performance. It helps in developing dynamic and productive environment which ensure high organizational performance. The three Content Motivation Theories that discussed in this paper are Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory, Herzberg’s two factor theory or Motivators- Hygiene theory and Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory. The main similarity among them is in their focus on identifying and understanding employee needs. The main difference among them is according the Maslow’s needs must be met in hierarchical order while Alderfer states that needs at any level can be unmet simultaneously and Herzberg said that hygiene factors will not motivate an individual. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory: Human behavior is goal-directed. Motivation cause goal-directed behavior. It is through motivation that needs can be handled and tackled deliberately. This can be understood by understanding the hierarchy of needs. The needs of individual are serves as a driving force in human behavior. Need may define as â€Å"psychological feature that arouses an organism to action towards a goal giving purpose and directions†. Therefore, a manager must understand the hierarchy of needs Proposed Maslow. Maslows theory is based on two principles which are Deficit Principle and Progression Principle. As per Deficit principle a satisfied need no longer motivates behavior because people act to satisfy deprived needs. According to Progression principle the five needs that Maslow identified exist in a hierarchy, which means that a need at any level only comes into play after a lower-level need has been satisfied. According to A. H. Maslow â€Å"Motivation is function of five basic needs. † These needs are physiological need, safety need, love and belonging need; self esteem need, self actualization need. Maslow said that these five needs are arranged in order it influence human behavior. Maslow also said that once an individual satisfy his lower order need than he move towards his higher order needs as the lower order needs no longer motivate him. The lower order needs are known as deficiency needs and higher order needs called growth needs. Now let me briefly describe those needs. 1. Physiological Need: These are very basic needs but very vital for survival of an individual. It consist of food, water, shelter, need for sex, etc. 2. Safety Security Need: Once an individual satisfy with his physiological needs he move towards second level needs which are needs for safety and security. Individual generally seek security from physical, psychological financial harm Individual comes under this category of needs are motivated through job security, health bank balance for financial stability. 3. Love Belonging Need: Individual under this need category seeks love and acceptance by their society love once. Their behavior has been carried out by emotional relationships. Individual under this category are motivated by friendship, acceptance by social, community groups, romantic relationship, etc. 4. Self Esteem Need: These are higher level needs according to need hierarchy theory. It is need for appreciation, respect, prestige, reputation etc. Individual under this category are motivated by high self esteem which comes from self confidence, recognition by others, etc. 5. Self Actualization Need: This is the highest level of need hierarchy theory. It is need for self fulfillment, individual’s desire to achieve full potential as human being. Individual under this category has accepted them self as they are now they can enjoy their life without guilt. Implications of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory: The managers must identify the exiting need level of the employee and then those needs can be utilized as push for motivation. For physiological needs, the managers should give employees appropriate salaries to satisfy the necessities of life. To satisfy security needs, employees need a safe and hygiene working environment, provide wage that is enough to afford their desired lifestyle, house and quality of life and retirement benefits which give them an extra layer of job security and that helps in retain them. Social needs necessitate managers to focus on team work and social events, as well as providing employees a chance to socialize outside of work. Esteem needs would be met by appreciation of achievements, rewards for good performance. Finally, self-actualization need can be met by furnishing the employees with challenging jobs which ensure that the employees’ skills and competencies are fully utilized. Moreover, growth prospects can be given to them so that they can reach the peak. Herzberg’s Motivator Hygiene Theory: This theory focus on various job related factors which de-motivate or motivate individual. Factors which motivate an individual are known as motivators or satisfiers while factors which de-motivate an individual are called dissatisfies or hygiene factors. Motivators or Satisfiers: They are related with an individual’s need for growth. The Presence of these factors actively creates job satisfaction. They are associated with content of task being performed Motivators include satisfactions, recognition, responsibility, opportunity for growth, etc. Hygiene Factors: Hygiene factors are based on providing pleasant work environment. Absence of these factors creates dissatisfaction and which would result in to low productivity, poor quality production, an average service quality, unpleasant work condition, lack of free flow of communication among employee and supervisor. Hygiene factors include company policy, wage and salary, quality of supervision, interpersonal relations among employees, etc. According to Herzberg â€Å"Factors which creates satisfaction are different from factors which creates dissatisfaction. So it needs to be consideration that opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction rather than dissatisfaction and opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction rather than satisfaction. Implications of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory The motivation-hygiene theory implies that managers must focus their efforts in two areas which are to ensure enough level hygiene factors which avoid any employee dissatisfaction and make sure that the work is inspiring, exciting and rewarding so that the employees are motivated to perform their work with enhanced and better efforts. This theory accentuate upon ob-enrichment to motivate the employees. The job must utilize the employee’s skills and competencies to the maximum. Future more as per the motivator-hygiene theory meeting employees lower-level needs would only prevent employees from becoming actively dissatisfied but will not motivate them. To motivate workers along with job-enrichment managers must focus on satisfying their higher order need by changing the intrinsic nature and content of job itself, by providing autonomy to take additional responsibility, and award enough opportunity to develop their skills and careers. Alderfer’s ERG Theory Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory is the extension and simplification of Maslows five need hierarchy into three needs which are Existence, Relatedness and Growth. Hence it called ERG theory. ERG theory presents a model of progressive need. This elasticity feature allows the ERG theory to explain wide variety of practical behaviors. Existence Needs These include need for basic necessities of life. It includes an individual’s physiological and physical safety needs. These need reside at lowest level. Once individual has fulfilled his existence needs he would feel safe and physically relaxed. Relatedness Needs Once an individual feel safe relaxed then he move towards fulfilling the next set of need which is Relatedness. These include the aspiration of an individual’s for maintaining important interpersonal relationships, getting community recognition and recognition. Growth Needs The highest level of need on ERG theory is growth needs. Here an individual look for growth. These include need for self-advancement and personal growth and advancement. Once an individual satisfy his growth needs he feel a sense of completeness, accomplishment and realization Implications of ERG Theory Unlike with Maslows need hierarchy theory, managers must be aware of that an individual has several needs to fulfill simultaneously. According to the frustration- regression aspect of ERG Theory, if advancement opportunities are not provided to individual, they he may revert back to relatedness needs. If the manager is able to identify this situation, then steps can be taken to concentrate on relatedness needs until the individual is able to pursue advancement again. The situation or conditions are not favorable then he might revert to the need for money to fulfill those needs. Similarity Differences between Maslow’s Need hierarchy Theory and Herzbergs Two-Factor Hygiene Theory: Both Herzberg Maslow’s theory states that needs of an individual must be satisfied in order to motivate him. However according to Herzberg’s theory higher level needs of Maslow’s theory are motivators and on the other hand lower level needs will create dissatisfaction if not met properly. Hygiene factors of Herzberg theory are identical to lower level need of Maslow‘s theory. Higher level needs of Maslow’s theory are equivalent to motivators of Herzberg theory. Maslow identified five sets of needs which individual provided they satisfied on priority basis while Herzberg identified job related factors which motivate individual. Maslow‘s theory is more popular simple and descriptive while Herzberg theory perspective and it is an extension to Maslow’s theory. Maslow’s theory is widely cited and has wide applicability. It is mostly applicable where money is still a big motivator. On the other hand Herzberg theory has narrow applicability. It is mostly applicable where money is less motivating factor. According to Maslow’s theory any need could act as motivator as long as it is not satisfied or relatively less satisfied on the contrary as per Herzberg theory only motivators like achievement, recognition, etc can motivate an individual. Hygiene factors do not motivate an individual. Similarity Differences between Maslow’s Need hierarchy Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Theory Alderfer’s ERG theory is very identical to Maslow’s Need Hierarchy but It has only three tiers. The ERG needs can be grouped with Maslows theory like Existence parallel to Physiological and safety needs. Relatedness equivalent to Social and external esteem needs. Growth similar to Self-actualization and internal esteem needs. Like Maslows Need Hierarchy theory, the ERG theory is hierarchical as existence needs have precedence over relatedness needs, which have priority over growth. ERG theory has only three sets of needs compare to Maslow’s five sets of need of hierarchy. The ERG theory allows different priority of needs for different individual. According to the frustration- regression principle of ERG Theory, higher level need remains nfulfilled; the person may revert back to lower level needs which are relatively easy to satisfy. It may be a bit more logical, as the ERG theory state that unlike Maslow’s theory sex does not come under lower level need since it is not critical for survival of an individual. Maslow’s need hierarchy theory is rigid as it assumes that the needs follow a specific hierarchy and unless a lower-level need is satisfied, an individual cannot move towards the higher-level need while ERG Theory is very flexible as an individual satisfy needs as a variety rather than as a hierarchy. Similarity Differences between Alderfer’s ERG Theory and Herzbergs Two-Factor Hygiene Theory According to ERG theory any unsatisfied need could act as motivator on the other side as per Herzberg two factor theory only motivators like achievement, recognition, etc can motivate an individual. Hygiene factors do not motivate an individual. Alderfer’s ERG theory categorized three sets of needs which motivate an individual while Herzberg identified job related factors which motivate individual called motivators also identified that the absence of hygiene factors would create negative satisfaction among employee. Compare Contrast Maslow’s Need hierarchy Theory, Alderfer’s ERG Theory and Herzbergs Two-Factor Hygiene Theory Maslows hierarchy of needs is based on the assumption that individual has their needs satisfied at a certain level then the next level need with motivate them to move forward into the hierarchy. In Maslows theory, the basic needs are physiological, food, air, water, sleep and sex. The second level is security such as work and safety and security. The next levels of hierarchy are social, esteem and self actualizing. In the social there is a need for family friends; recognition from community, in the esteem a need for self confidence, and in the final self actualizing is to achieve full potential as human being. Each of these needs is significant for the overall satisfaction of an individual. ERG theory cuts down these levels into three although it provides more flexibility. Needs may vary from person to person and different person may have different levels. In these levels of needs, people may find it difficult to satisfy the next level and revert back to an easier level. According to ERG theory the three categories of need are existence, relatedness. According to the frustration- regression aspect of ERG Theory, if growth opportunities are not provided to individual, they he may revert back. Two factor theory by Herzberg has two categories which are motivator and hygiene factors. Hygiene factors include better working conditions, job security, salary, status and interpersonal relationships. Motivators include achievement, recognition, interest, and responsibility. High hygiene plus low motivators can lead to few complaints and issues. This theory only apply to work environment it did not applied to other parts of life like family, community, and other human dealings and concern. How Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory, Alderfer’s ERG Theory and Herzbergs Two-Factor Hygiene Theory improve Organization’s Performance: Motivational theory has to do with the way organization motivates their employee to perform their task effectively which ultimately improve organizational performance. Motivational theory helps organization to develop productive work environment. Herzberg theory help organization to identify job related factors which promote health work environment. Maslow’s theory helps manger’s to understand that not all individual are driven by the sane needs and the needs that motivate individuals can change overtime. Manager should consider which need an individual try to satisfy and depending upon that manager should design the reward structure which motivate an individual and that motivated individual results in to better organizational performance. Herzberg theory promotes democratic approach to management which helps organization to find motivators which are more concern with actual job like challenging task that give sense of achievement. Content Motivation Theories are Need-based theories explain motivated actions as individual efforts to meet needs. As per this perspective, the manager’s job is to identify what individual needs and then to ensure that the work environment becomes a means of fulfilling these needs. Maslow’s hierarchy categorizes human needs into five hierarchical needs as physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. ERG theory is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy, where the five needs are categorized into three set of needs as existence, relatedness, and growth. The two-factor theory differentiates between factors that make individual dissatisfied on the job known as hygiene factors and factors that truly motivate individual known as motivators.

The Kirkpatrick Evaluation Model Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss how an International NGO responding to a Humanitarian Emergency might use these Unitiatives to Ensure the Quality of its response. Answer: The way the employees perform in the organization converts to the amount of business that organization will gain (Armstrong and Taylor 2014). The employees need to enhance the quality if work that they deliver to the customers or the clients. The organization should take all the measures so that they will be able to enhance the quality of work that will be delivered by the employees (Brewster, Mayrhofer and Morley 2016). The employer has to keep a check on the performance of the employees and then implement necessary measures so that the performance could be enhanced (Storey 2014). The Kirkpatrick Model is one such model that talks about the training of the employees and the change in the employees in course of action. The model has four stages, the behavior of the employees will vary in each stage, and it is expected that the potential of the employees will also be enhanced. The write-up will look into the aspects of the Kirkpatrick Model and will discuss the importance of the stages for the development of the employees and enhance the quality of work of the employees. The case of National Australian Bank will be taken into consideration. the bank has not been able to good customer service when there had been technical issues in the organization. the application of the Kirkpatrick Model in such situation and it will be seen whether the model will be helpful in enhancing the quality of the service that is being delivered to the customers. Enhancing the quality of an organization should be a continuous process (Purce 2014). The Kirkpatrick Model might be helpful in training the employees in the organization. An organization needs to keep a check on the performance of the employees to enhance the quality of the performance of the employees. The organization needs to keep a check on the performance of the employees so that it will be able to get an understanding if the employees need any kind of training so that the quality of the performance could be enhanced. The Kirkpatrick Model talks about the training process that could be imparted to the employees of an organization. Figure 1: Kirkpatrick Model (Source: Panchenko 2013) The Kirkpatrick Model has four levels of training process in the organization Reaction The extent to which the employees comply with the needs of training is covered in the reaction stage (Panchenko 2015). Based on the evaluation of the employees, the employees will engage in the training process and will find the training relevant to the jobs that are assigned in the organization. The employees will get an understanding of the need of the training if they have faced any adverse situation (Jackson, Schuler and Jiang 2014). If they have faced any harsh situation, they will understand the training is necessary. The organization that is thinking of implementing the model can take a small test to see the need of the training for the employees (Konrad, Yang and Maurer 2016). Learning The amount of knowledge that the employees acquired through the training process is covered in the learning stage (Agarwal, Pande and Ahuja 2014). The level of skills that have been acquired by the employees is depended on their commitment for their organization and their interest in the training process. Behavior The performance of the employees after the training is discussed in the behavior stage (Chen 2013). The things that the employees will learn while in the training process will help them in performing while they return to the job. If they have good amount of interest for the training process and have learned the things well, then the knowledge will be seen in the way the employees will perform in their jobs (Alfes et al. 2013). Results The overall performance of the organization will help in understanding the effectiveness of the training that has been imparted to the employees (Woodhouse 2016). The performance of the employees will be judged by the external factors that work outside the organization. The annual reports of the company and the feedback of the customers will be able to throw light on the fact on whether the model has been effective for training the employees (Riley 2014). The customers of National Australian Bank complained of poor customer service (Mitchell 2016). The staffs were not able to meet the demands of the customers. The functions of the banks are going online and the demands from the customers are rising at a steep rate. In addition to this, the customers are also looking for better services when they are coming to the bank. They do not like to face long queues when they come to the banks. In addition to this, it is the duty of the bank to give unmatched customer support if they face any issues online. Even if the banks have strong online presence, then also they have to keep a strong customers service department. They have to prompt in their service so that the customers would not have to wait if they are facing any issue online. As a result, the customer service department should have been able to solve the issues of the customers in time without inviting any trouble for them. However, the issues in the National Australian Bank are result ing in various issues for the customers both online and offline. The website of National Australian Bank faced a huge issue when the sites stopped working. The mobile apps stopped working and the customers were unable to do any transaction online. Even when the customers tried to open the websites of the bank from the internet browser, they were unable to do so. Moreover, there was not any person who would solve the queries of the customers. Due to the technological error in the online sites, the customers went to the banks but the staffs were unable to handle the rush of the customers in the banks. The Kirkpatrick Model should have been implemented in the organization that would have helped the employees to prepare them for any difficult situation. The employees were not ready for any adverse situation and hence they were not able to handle the customers during the time of an emergency (Aswathappa 2013). The Kirkpatrick Model would have been able to make the employees prepare for the adverse situations. If the Kirkpatrick Model is implemented in the National Australian Bank, the organization would not face any issue in the reaction stage. The employees have already faced the issues of mismanagement while the website went down. They could not handle the customers in the banks. If the employees were given the training, they would be able to handle the situation, when there is any kind of emergency in the organization. As they have already failed to handle the situation, there would not be a resistance from the part of the employees (Armstrong and Taylor 2014). They would like to comply with the needs of the training so that they are able to enhance their quality if work and able to handle the crises in a better manner. As a result, the reaction stage would not be difficult for the organization. The employees will be already convinced that there is a need for the training (Brewster, Mayrhofer and Morley 2016). The learning process will help them to get an idea about the way crisis shou ld be handled in the organization. As the online sites were not working, the customer came to the banks. As a result, the footfall of the customers will be more than the normal days they have to divide the works in such a manner so that they could combat to the issues of the customers. They have to make their work faster and they have to cooperate with each other so that they would be able to handle the situation in a better manner (Storey 2014). They do not have the knowledge to handle crisis and they should be taught about the crisis. The learning process will help the employees to serve the customers in a better manner. The behavior of the employees of the organization will be judged in the behavior stage. This situation may not be real and will be made by the organization (Purce 2014). It is up to the senior managers of the organization to test whether the employees have been able to learn the way to handle the crisis. The senior managers should implement a situation that is not real but will help in understanding the level of knowledge of the employees (Jackson, Schuler and Jiang 2014). The senior managers can tell the employees about a situation of emergency that has arisen in the organization. They will create mock customer who could come to the banks and the employees will have to solve their issues in some hours. The employees will not be told about the customers and that they are mock and not real customers (Konrad, Yang and Maurer 2016). In this way, they will be able to learn to tackle the situations better and will be able to handle tough situations better in future. The overall performance of the banks will tell whether the employee have been able to gain the knowledge properly and will show the result for the training process. The customers will be the best people to talk about the quality of the service will be giving to the customers who are coming to the bank (Alfes et al. 2013). They will be able to give proper and correct feedback about the functions of the employees. If they are satisfied with the way the employee are performing in the organization (Riley 2014). The quality of the services of the employees will be judged by the promptness in delivering the work, the time take to deliver the work and the quality of the work delivered by the employees in the organization (Aswathappa 2013). The customers will also be asked to compare between the service that has been delivered in the past with the banks and the changes that they might have seen in the present. If they feel that there is any change in the service in a positive manner then it can be said that the model has been helpful in enhancing the performance of the employees (Armstrong and Taylor 2014). The feedback will throw light on the affect of the model on enhancing the quality of the services of the banks (Brewster, Mayrhofer and Morley 2016). After going through the Kirkpatrick Model and the case study of the National Australian Bank, it can be concluded that training is necessary for enhancing the quality of the performance of the organization. The model consists of four stages, reaction, learning, behavior and result. the Kirkpatrick Model mainly talks about the stages of training and the way the employees will behave once they will be given the training. It has been found that once the employees will understand the need of the training, they will learn more and the quality of the performance of the employees will be enhanced accordingly. The National Australian Bank has faced issues when the online website of the bank has stopped working. The customers faced huge issues as they were unable to carry out the transactions. The tried to carry out the work from the banks but the employees were not able to handle the rush. The Kirkpatrick Model can be implemented in this situation so that quality of the performance of the employees could be enhanced. In this situation, it will be easier for the organization as the employees will know the need of training. The customers will be the best people to tell the result of the training process. They will also be able to tell whether the employees have been able to learn the things properly. References Agarwal, N., Pande, N. and Ahuja, V., 2014. Expanding the Kirkpatrick evaluation model-towards more efficient training in the IT sector.International Journal of Human Capital and Information Technology Professionals (IJHCITP),5(4), pp.19-34. Alfes, K., Shantz, A.D., Truss, C. and Soane, E.C., 2013. The link between perceived human resource management practices, engagement and employee behaviour: a moderated mediation model.The international journal of human resource management,24(2), pp.330-351. Armstrong, M. and Taylor, S., 2014.Armstrong's handbook of human resource management practice. Kogan Page Publishers. Aswathappa, K., 2013.Human resource management: Text and cases. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. Brewster, C., Mayrhofer, W. and Morley, M. eds., 2016.New Challenges for European Resource Management. Springer. Chen, W.K., 2013. Disorder chaos in the SherringtonKirkpatrick model with external field.The Annals of Probability,41(5), pp.3345-3391. Jackson, S.E., Schuler, R.S. and Jiang, K., 2014. An aspirational framework for strategic human resource management.The Academy of Management Annals,8(1), pp.1-56. Konrad, A.M., Yang, Y. and Maurer, C.C., 2016. Antecedents and outcomes of diversity and equality management systems: An integrated institutional agency and strategic human resource management approach.Human Resource Management,55(1), pp.83-107. Mitchell, G. 2016.National Australia Bank apologises to customers amid online banking outage. [online] The Sydney Morning Herald. Available at: https://www.smh.com.au/business/banking-and-finance/national-australia-bank-apologises-to-customers-amid-online-banking-outage-20161004-gruvvt.html [Accessed 27 Apr. 2017]. Panchenko, D., 2013.The Sherrington-Kirkpatrick model. Springer Science Business Media. Panchenko, D., 2015. The free energy in a multi-species SherringtonKirkpatrick mo Purce, J., 2014. The impact of corporate strategy on human resource management.New Perspectives on Human Resource Management (Routledge Revivals),67. Riley, M., 2014.Human resource management in the hospitality and tourism industry. Routledge. Storey, J., 2014.New Perspectives on Human Resource Management (Routledge Revivals). Routledge. Woodhouse, M., 2016. An Analysis of Evaluation Practices of Two Training Programs in the Healthcare Sector Using the New World Kirkpatrick Model.

Adequacy of Assertion by Kenneth Andrews on Strategy free essay sample

Strategy is a term that comes from the Greek word strategic, meaning generalship. In the military, strategy often refers to maneuvering troops into position before the enemy is actually engaged. In other words strategy refers to the deployment of troops. Once the enemy is engaged attention shifts to tactics. Thus, in business, strategy involves the deployment of resources (like troops in the military sense) towards achieving a vision or an ultimate objective.Kenneth Andrews is first edition of The Concept of Corporate Strategy In 1971 and updated In 1980 defined corporate strategy as the pattern of decisions In a company that determines and reveals Its objectives, purposes or goals, produces the principal policies and plans for achieving those goals, and defines the range of businesses the company is to pursue, the kind of economic and human organization it is or intends to be, and the nature of the economic and non-economic contribution it intends to make to its shareholders, employees, customers, and communities. We will write a custom essay sample on Adequacy of Assertion by Kenneth Andrews on Strategy or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Numerous definitions of treated have been made. However some of these definitions with time and experience have been criticized as having some weaknesses.Generally any good strategy must satisfy the following: 0 C] C] C] C] Fit the situation of the business/ organization Help the company to achieve sustainable competitive advantage Have the ability to boost the performance of the company Be flexible enough to adapt to changing circumstances of the industry and market Be worth Implementing as compared to the forgone alternatives with respect to the risks Involved The adequacy or otherwise) of Kenneth Andrews assertion that the strategy of a company is a purposes or goals, produces the principal policies and plan for achieving those goals shall in the ensuing paragraphs be analyzed.Adequacy of Kenneth Andrews definition of strategy Page 2 The following can be deduced from Kenneth Andrews assertion: 0 0 That the strategy of a company is a reflection of the pattern of decision. These pat tern of decisions in turn determines the objectives, purposes or goals and also the principal policies plan for achieving those goals. 1 . From Kenneth Andrews definition of strategy, we see a true fact that strategy should dictate the kind of decision patterns corporate organizations make. 2. Strategy must always inform the goals, purposes and objectives of an organization.These objectives or goals must finally lead to the achievement of the strategy and aiming at the vision 3. Kenneth Andrews assertion also sees strategy as a unified integrated plan to attain the firms ultimate objective or vision 4. Kenneth Andrews assertion encapsulates the four categories which other definitions of strategy covers (especially y Henry Integer, 1994). Biz: 0 0 Plan, a how, a means from one point to another Pattern in actions over time. For example a company that regularly markets very expensive products is using a high-end strategy. E. G.Jaguar cars, which are very luxurious and expensive, and wouldnt produce a car that sells below a certain high value 0 0 Position, I. E. Reflects decision to offer products or services in particular markets Perspective, I. E. A vision and direction, a view of what the company or organization is to become 5. Andrews definition of strategy also spells out the need for a vision/mission statement and aligns decisions, targets, goals, policies with vision mission statements On the other hand, some limitations/weaknesses criticisms of Kenneth Andrews assertion include: 1 .Kenneth Andrews assertion does not stress on the need for strategy to give the firm a competitive advantage. A winning strategy must always boost the performance of the company. 2. The assertion does not also address on dwelling on the firms core competencies Page 3 3. Flexibility in strategy to adapt to changing circumstances is not well considered or factored in Kenneth Andrews assertion. 4. Kenneth Andrews definition of strategy does not consider how well the strategy fits the situation of the company 5.Again, the assertion does not show any action to capture emerging markets 6. Assessment, considerations and analysis of the external environment is not well taken care of by or possible effect of industry players 8. The sensation doesnt seek to analyze and mitigate possible threats or other external forces such as the bargaining power of appliers/buyers, rivalry within the industry, barriers to entry and threats of new entrants.

Intro to Religion Essays - Black Elk, Healers, Lakota People

Intro to Religion Intro to Religion Final Writing Assignment Native American religions and witchcraft are alike in many ways. First of all, both are nature religions, meaning they both hold nature sacred and many of the symbols and ideas come from nature. Starhawk says that The Old Religion, as we call it, is closer in spirit to Native American [emailprotected] Both religions teach its followers the importance of understanding and action. Through reading Starhawk and Black Elk essays in the textbook, it easy to see the meaning of understanding and action. Each of these elements are crucial to the beliefs of the follower. Black Elk was a holy man of the Lakota people of the Sioux tribe. He writes of rituals and beliefs of his people in his book The Sacred Pipe. The sacred pipe is very important symbol to his people. It symbolizes the medicine wheel, all four directions living in the same space. Pinches of tobacco are placed in the pipe along with grains and seeds for all relatives and the pipe takes on new meaning. It also symbolizes how everything in the universe is unified. The pipe is very important in the lamenting process, which is discussed in Black Elk's writings. He goes into great detail about lamenting. It is looked at as a quest for healing, answers, and as a rite of passage. If a person wishes to lament, they must seek the right aid and advice, otherwise something could happen. Black Elk says that if it is not done correctly, "a serpent could come and wrap itself around the

Capital from Industrialized Nations to less Leveloped and Emerging

Capital from Industrialized Nations to less Leveloped and Emerging Capital from Industrialized Nations to less Leveloped and Emerging Markets – Case Study Example ï » ¿ WHETHER CAPITAL GENERATED IN THE INDSTRIALIZED CONTRIES IS FINDING ITS WAY TO LESS DEVELOPED AND EMERGING MARKETS Abstract This report examines the debatable issue of whether capital flows from rich to poor nations or not. The trends show that this is not happening. On the contrary, the capital flows from poor to rich industrialized nations, which is quite disturbing. Thus, the report shows that poor nations are financing rich nations contrary to economic predictions. Though a clear-cut, distinction is not possible between emerging and less developed nations, the trend shows emerging markets financing industrialized nations. Whether Capital Generated in the Industrialized Countries is Finding its Way to Less Developed and Emerging Markets? 1. Introduction The question of whether capital generated in the industrialized countries is finding its way to less developed and emerging markets has been a highly debated issue among economists. According to standard economic models, capital should flow from rich industrialized nations to poor developing nations because of financial globalization, assuming a neo-classical production function with diminishing returns due to the higher returns of capital in developing countries (Krugman, 1993). At the same time, many economists like Lucas (1990) have shown that in reality, capital flows from rich to poor countries contrary to the economic theory predictions. This report discusses this issue in detail based on the reports collected from World Bank, OECD, EBRD, IMF and UNCTAD. 2. Relative Movements and Magnitude of Global Capital Investments According to the reports by World Bank (2009), the net private capital inflows have shown tremendous decline in 2008 to $707 billion from $1.2 trillion in 2007 .At the same time net capital outflows increased to$244 billion in 2008 from$190 billion in 1997. Among the private capital components, net FDI, Portfolio and remittance capital outflows have shown significant rise while the net inflows of these components show declining trend. The reports by World Bank (2009) and OECD (2009) show that among the developing nations, emerging nations1 had the most significant decline in net private capital inflows. At the same time, the net official inflows to developing nations have increased in 2008(World Bank, 2009; OECD, 2009). The largest recipients of these have been Africa while the largest donors have been the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Japan. The relative share of industrialized and developing nations based on IMF data shows that contrary to the predictions of economic theory, on average industrialized nations are both the major donors and the major recipients of net private capital flows from 1990 to 2008(88 percent and 84 percent respectively). For the components of private capital flows like FDI, Portfolio flows also, the trend remains the same (IMF, 2009a; UNCTAD, 2009). In the case of FDI, which is a major component of private capital flows, UNCTAD(2009) statistics shows that USA remain the major recipient while the major sources of the inward FDI to USA has been the emerging markets like China(EBRD,2009). Among the developing nations, the emerging nations and the less developed nations have almost the same share of inward FDI, the emerging nations have high share of outward FDI compared to the less developed nations and is even equivalent to the world total outward FDI(UNCTAD, 2009). 3. Conclusion The discussion here shows that capital generated by the industrialized nations are not finding its way to less developed and emerging markets. On the contrary, the reverse trend is seen i.e. the capital flows from developing nations to industrialized nations. Among the developing nations, emerging nations are the major source of outward FDI. However, the distinction between the emerging markets and less developed nations is not very clear-cut. This is because many of the emerging markets are also characterized by features like political instability, strong currency turbulence and high foreign debt, which are the characteristics of less developed nations. Hence they are sometimes called less developed nations also(Fuss ,2002) Thus, a trend of poor nations financing the rich is seen which is against the standard economic theories and favouring Lucas (1990) predictions, which is quite disturbing. References European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (2009): â€Å"Transition Report 2009† (online), ebrd.com/pubs/econo/tr09a.pdf- 7816.8KB, Accessed October 2009. Fuss R (2002): â€Å"The Financial Characteristics between Emerging and Developed Equity Markets†(online), www.ecomod.net/conferences/ecomod2002/papers/fuss.pdf, Accessed December2002. International Monetary Fund (2009a). â€Å"International Financial Statistics†. Washington, 2009. International Monetary Fund (2009b). â€Å"Glossary of Selected FinancialTerms†(online),imf.org/external/np/exr/glossary/showTerm.asp#97, Accessed October 2009. Krugman, P (1993). â€Å"What do we need to know about the International Monetary System?† Princeton Studies in International Economics 190, International Economics Section, Department of Economics, Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.A: Princeton University. Lucas, R. (1990). "Why Doesn't Capital Flow from Rich to Poor Countries?" American Economic Review 80: 93-96. OECD (2009): â€Å"Investment News 2009†, June 2009, issue 10, Paris: OECD. World Bank (2009): â€Å"Global Development Finance†. Washington, World Bank. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2009): â€Å"World Investment Report†, New York and Geneva: United Nations

Invented Ethos - Definition and Examples in Rhetoric

Invented Ethos s in Rhetoric In classical rhetoric, invented ethos is a type of proof that  relies on the qualities of a speakers character as conveyed by his or her discourse.   In contrast to situated ethos (which is based on the rhetors reputation in the community), invented ethos is projected by the rhetor in the context  and delivery of the speech  itself. According to Aristotle, say Crowley and Hawhee, rhetors can invent a character suitable to an occasion- this is invented ethos (Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students, 2004). Examples and Observations The ethos of  rhetors is established by the words  they use and the roles they assume in their meanings and varied interactions.(Harold Barrett, Rhetoric . SUNY Press, 1991)  and Civility Situated Ethos and Invented Ethos Ethos is concerned with character. It has two aspects. The first concerns the esteem in which the speaker or writer is held. We might see this as his/her situated ethos. The second is about what a speaker/writer actually does linguistically in his/her texts to ingratiate him/herself with the audience. This second aspect has been referred to as invented ethos. Situated ethos and invented ethos are not separate; rather, they operate on a cline.  For example, the more effective your  invented ethos is, the stronger your situated ethos might become in the long run, and vice versa.(Michael Burke, Rhetoric and Poetics: The Classical Heritage of Stylistics.  The Routledge Handbook of Stylistics, ed. by Michael Burke. Routledge, 2014) The Critic's Ethos: Situated and Invented The two considerations here are situated ethos and  invented ethos  respectively. When it comes to aesthetic criticism... situated ethos  is when a successful novelist in his  own right is asked his opinion about another novel. His opinion is respected because of who he is known to be- situated ethos. But the critic has to set up shop  by himself and pronounce (for example) on a painting when he himself does not know how to paint. He does this by means of some form of invented ethos; that is, he has to come up with various rhetorical devices for getting people to listen. If he is successful at this over time, then he acquires a reputation as a critic and has therefore grown into situated ethos.(Douglas Wilson, Writers to Read. Crossway, 2015) Aristotle on Ethos [There is persuasion] through character whenever the speech is spoken in such a way as to make the speaker worthy of credence; for we believe fair-minded people to greater extent and more quickly [than we do others] on all subjects in general and completely so in cases where there is not exact knowledge but room for doubt. And this should result from the speech, not from a previous opinion that the speaker is a certain kind of person.(Aristotle, Rhetoric) Treated as an aspect of rhetoric, Aristotelian [invented] ethos presumes that human nature is knowable, reducible to a range of types, and manipulable by discourse.(James S. Baumlin, Ethos, The Encyclopedia of Rhetoric, ed. by Thomas O. Sloane. Oxford University Press, 2001)Today we may feel uncomfortable with the notion that rhetorical character can be constructed since we tend to think of character, or personality, as fairly stable. We generally assume as well that character is shaped by an individuals experiences. The ancient Greeks, in contrast, thought that character was constructed not by what happened to people but by the moral practices in which they habitually engaged. An ethos was not finally given by nature, but was developed by habit.(Sharon Crowley and Debra Hawhee, Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students, 3rd ed. Pearson, 2004) Cicero on Invented Ethos So much is done by good taste and style in speaking that the speech seems to depict the speakers character. For by means of particular types of thought and diction, and the employment besides of a delivery that is unruffled and eloquent of good nature, the speakers are made to appear upright, well-bred, and virtuous men.(Cicero, De Oratore)

Video games Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Video games - Essay Example The player develops the sportsman spirit and learns to take failures into stride. Instead of going to sleep during daytime, it is better to play some inspiring video games that boost the energy level as they enliven the spirits of the player. The thinking capacity of the mind sharpens as you think of moves and counter moves. One also develops a challenging trait which enables an individual to face difficulties with courage in real-life situations. With the theory/practical knowledge available through the internet, an individual gets the knowledge of different types of games from many countries. To play a game, an individual need not leave the place of residence, and waste time and money on conveyance and relax in the homely atmosphere and adjust the playing time according to convenience. Drew Guarinà ­ (2013) writes â€Å"A study from the University of Padua throws cold water on the idea that video games are bad for the brains of young children. In February, the Italian researchers presented evidence that playing fast-paced video games can improve the reading skills of children with dyslexia†. By playing the same videogame a number of times, we attain perfection and speed. Winning the games provides the satisfaction and confidence and that will help us in real-life situations. So we should develop the art of playing video games without getting addicted to

Macroeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 7

Macroeconomics - Essay Example expenditure, thus Another way to reach eqn. (3) is to start from the equilibrium at the market for loanable funds. National saving (S) can be considered to be the supply of loans in the economy and national (gross) investments (I) as demand for the loans. Now, The govt. expenditure multiplier is 1/ (1-c1), as calculated from eqn. (3), where, c1 = MPC. In this example MPC is 0.8. Hence, a  £1 rise in govt. expenditure will raise the GDP by  £1/ (1-0.8) =  £5. Again from the equation (3) we can calculate the tax-cut multiplier to be c1/ (1-c1). In this example, c1 = 0.8 and hence the value of the multiplier will be 0.8/ (1-0.8) = 4. Therefore a  £1 cut in the income tax would raise the GDP by the amount of  £4 and so a  £100 million of tax cut shall raise the GDP by 4 x  £100 million =  £400 million. If now G goes up by  £100 million GDP would rise by  £500 million. Again if this increased G is financed by raising T by  £100 million, i.e. if T goes up by  £100 million, GDP would fall by  £400 million. Hence the net effect of this balanced budget fiscal stimulus on GDP would be  £ (500 – 400) million =  £100 million, i.e. GDP would rise exactly by the amount spent on the public activities. In an economy in the short run, the prices as well as wages tend to be sticky. Hence, people often prefer to stay unemployed since they cannot get the right wage for their labour. This is the case that determines the natural rate of unemployment. Again, prices in the short run are sticky as well and thus are used to determine the real wages of workers that they consider to maintain a similar standard of living throughout. The wage setting equation is, W/P = w * (P/Pe) and the price setting equation is, p = P + a(Y – Y*) ADAS Model is a part of the classical model in economics that considers money to be neutral. According to the quantity theory of money, MV = PY where M = Money Supply, V = Velocity of money

American literature This I believe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

American literature This I believe - Essay Example If you have not read, memorized, and kept at heart that immeasurable and invaluable gift by our great ancestors, you had better do. Otherwise, your commitment to the cause of justice, the cause of equality may be legitimately question. One cannot have an answer why you have not read the American declaration of independence. No excuse can be heard from the anybody’s mouth why they have not read their declaration of independence. I believe in its content, intents, and purports. As for my case, I will up to the word, phrases, and the meaning intended by our great ancestors. What else can we ask for? (American Declaration of Independence, para.2). The declaration tells us what to do and what not to. Our declaration of independence ought to be declared a wonder of the world. It ought to be a legal document with a force of law. It should be the grundnorm against which we measure our behaviors. Have we pursued to the fullest our right to be happy? Are American people happy, as we all deserve? Do we believe it is true that happiness is a truth that is self-evident? Do we believe that our right to right to life and liberty and happiness are inalienable? Do we think we should lead by example and infect all the nations of the world with our firm believe that we ought to be happy? If we fully understand, our declaration of independence do we treat the other nations as they deserve. Whether the non-derogable are rights to life, freedom, and pursuit of happiness limited to Americans only? The American people, we ought not to interpret the words literary. They must be given the widest possible interpretation. In our pursuit of the right to life and pursuit of happiness, we should conserve the world environment. We should not be partakers in the complicity of degrading the world environment. We ought to lead by example and have other people’s happiness in having a clean and

Legal Aspects of Business - Law of Contract Assignment

Legal Aspects of Business - Law of Contract - Assignment Example The first and foremost thing essential for the formation of an agreement and then a contract is an offer. Offer indicates one’s willingness to do something or abstain from doing something with an intention to obtain the assent of the other. This proposal is meant for entering into a legally binding agreement. Acceptance means the approval of the other party to whom the offer has been made. In the given assignment, John is the ‘offeror’ and Kathryn is the acceptor. The offer of John to sell a brand I-Mobile for â‚ ¬300 was accepted by Kathryn though with certain changes in the actual offer. Another essential element of a valid agreement and contract is the proper communication regarding offer and acceptance. As Miller and Gentz (2010, 208) point out, two parties can enter into an agreement only through the communication of the proposal or offer and its acceptance. Such a proposal made by one party to the other is called an offer. Once the other party to whom the offer is given accepts it, it becomes a promise. Acceptance is the consent of the other party to the invitation of the first party to do something or abstain from doing something (ibid). An assent or consent to the offer is termed as an acceptance. To make the communication of offer and acceptance more meaningful, the parties in a contract must have agreed upon the subject matter of the contract in the same sense and in the same manner (ibid). A mere mental resolve on the part of the offeree to accept the offer does not amount to acceptance due to lack of manifestation of the intension to do so. There should be an oral or written communication between the offeror and the acceptor regarding the acceptance or denial of the same. Here, no such offer has been made by John to Kathryn. What John has made is just a statement that he is ready to sell his last year model mobile phone

Price Elasticity Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Price Elasticity - Research Paper Example The greater the percentage of income the commodity represents, the greater the elasticity because it will attract people’s attention as a result of its high cost (Moschandreas, 2000). If a commodity represents a small percentage of the consumer’s income, on the other hand, it will have little effect on demand, and is deemed to be inelastic. Therefore, the purchasing power of the consumer affects elasticity a great deal. Necessity also profoundly affects elasticity. If a product is necessary, that is, if one cannot do without a product, elasticity is reduced because people will still buy the product irrespective of the change in price (Ferrell, 2010). The availability of alternative goods affects elasticity. If a substitute good is close and readily available to the market, elasticity will be high since people will have the choice to switch to the attractive alternative. This can be necessitated by the slightest of changes in prices, and therefore largely affects elasticity (Ferrell, 2010). Substitute goods availability and reach is a factor that many companies look at in price consideration due to its massive impact on elasticity. Some factors have the least effect on elasticity. Though relative, the effect that these factors have is thought to be negligible. Time is one such example. Price changes that persist for short time periods affect the demand for a good, and subsequent sales far much less than price changes that hold for a long time. If a price change holds for a long time, elasticity is likely to be high since the customers will have time to find suitable alternatives (Moschandreas, 2000). Loyalty to a specific brand affects elasticity. This is so because if a consumer is loyal to a brand, elasticity is low as the variables that affect the product will not affect its demand. However, it s worth noting that with time and availability of better alternatives, loyalty eventually

Sociology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Sociology - Essay Example Adolescent substance abuse can be defined as the use of a drug or chemical â€Å"that modifies the mood or behavior of the user† by which, â€Å"the user’s functioning is negatively affected† (Lewis, Dana and Blevins, 2009, p.4). Substance abuse is also different from addiction in that when addiction is there, the person shows â€Å"physical symptoms of withdrawal or tolerance to the substance† (Lewis, Dana and Blevins, 2009, 4). Any deviant behavior is proven to have â€Å"multiple causes† (Isralowitz and Singer, 2009, 10). The causes of adolescent substance abuse are understood to have developed from a â€Å"complex interaction of interpersonal, social and developmental factors† (Lorion, 1990, p.203). Developmental factors are supposed to be the most important causes for this problem, as puberty will bring in many physical changes, along with changes in thinking, self-image and self-esteem (Lorion, 1990, p.203). Though it is very difficult to list all the causes involved, it is approved by all that substance abuse results in serious health problems in adolescents (Isralowitz and Singer, 1983, p.1). Prevention, early identification, intervention, and maintaining of corrected behavior are the steps in treating this kind of deviance (Isralowitz and Singer, 1983, p.1).

Women’s Changing Role in the Family and Society

Women’s Changing Role in the Family and Society Nicole M. Tortoris Today, women are tipping the balance of power in their favor. Women have gained power because society is becoming more aware of women’s potential, not only as mothers and housewives, but as businesswomen and entrepreneurs (Schoen, Astone, Rothert, Standish, Kim, 2002). The battle of the sexes continues; women are becoming more independent and more preoccupied with their careers. Women’s independence is why they are less dependent on men and men’s financial support, and less willing to start a family for reasons concerning only economic safety. The emancipation of women, which began decades ago, led to a more active and influential presence in the business world, also known as â€Å"a man’s world.† The time to be an obedient housewife and a dedicated mother has passed, while the time for education and profession is present. Women are becoming too busy for large families for whom they must care during their entire youth (Schoen, Astone, Rothert, Stan dish, Kim, 2002). In their study, Schoen, Aston, Rothert, Standish and Kim (2002) investigated whether or not married women’s employment threatens their marriages. They pose a complex three-part hypothesis in which they examine the likelihood of a marriage to end in divorce based on the woman’s employment and the happiness of both or either spouse. They investigated these hypotheses using data from the 1988 and 1992-94 National Survey of Families and Households. In their analysis of this data, the authors consider two theories using the variables role specialization, interdependence, and economic opportunity. The first suggests that a married woman’s employment does pose a threat to her marriage; however, the second argues that in itself, the wife’s work does not endanger her marriage, but would allow her to leave if she were unhappy with the marriage. The authors’ findings support the second theory, that a working woman would be more likely to leave an unhappy marri age. The risk of divorce for a full time employed wife when both partners are unhappy is 4.94 times greater than not getting a divorce, p Women’s fuller participation in the decision-making processes of our social institutions has shattered stereotypes that tended to limit females to feminine activities and pushed males into male activities (Heslin, 2007). As structural barriers continue to fall and more activities are degendered, both males and females will be freer to pursue activities that are more compatible with their individual abilities and desires instead of society’s prescribed roles. As stereotypes continue to be broken, new role models develop and socialization of children changes. Males and females will gain new perceptions of themselves and of one another. Sociologist Janet Chafetz (1974) conducted a qualitative longitudinal study utilizing focus groups, (based in large part on small class project by her students). In this study, Chafetz identifies 16 acceptable behaviors, eight for men and eight for women. Each of these themes focused on specific behaviors that are considered acceptable for men and women. This study’s findings were more useful in determining acceptable behaviors for men and women, and efforts to understand how far both men and women have advanced in terms of acceptable behaviors. This study was also useful because it looked at behaviors instead of stereotypes. In an attempt to take a new approach to this area of study, this study coded specific sex-typed behaviors, instead of using stereotypes, to assess gender in commercials. Chafetz (1974) explained that this change will allow men and women to express needs and emotions that traditional social arrangements denied them. Women and girls will likely perceive themselves as more in control of their lives, more assertive, and striving more for positions of leadership. With these roles changing, men and women will also develop a new consciousness of their capacities and their options, which will change relationships among men and women. Offen (1990) predicted that if current trends continue, American society may see a growing appreciation of sexual differences coupled with greater equality of opportunity. This has the potential of transforming society. According to Rogers and Amato (2000), there have been fundamental changes to gender relations. Since the 1960s, both men and women have become less traditional in their gender-role attitudes. Judge and Livingston (2008) examined the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, a panel study administered by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The sample was a nationally representative sample of 12,686 individuals between the ages of 14 and 22 years of age when the participants were first surveyed in 1979. Individuals were surveyed annually through 1994 and then interviewed on a biennial basis through to 2005. F rom the original sample, 60.4% of participants remained in the study. Judge and Livingston (2008) found that women have a more egalitarian orientation than men do (B=-.361, p Kulik (2002) analyzed 232 Israeli retirees aged 58 to 85 years to compare the differences between husbands and wives and their views on marital satisfaction. The results of this comparison suggest that gender may have implications for those couples who are at similar life stages versus those who are not. Participants in the study were asked to complete a 20 minute questionnaire. Research assistants made sure the couples filled out the questionnaire separately. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether there were differences between husbands and wives with respect to marital satisfaction and gender role ideology, power relations, and division of family roles. Wives reported a lower level of marital satisfaction than their husbands F(2,103)=7.45,p In Kulik’s 1999 study of 348 men, 137 were pre-retired (up to 18 months prior to retirement) and 211 had been retired from 2 to 10 years. MANOVA revealed significant differences between pre-retired and retired husbands in gender role ideology (F [2,324] = 6.25, p Several potential explanations for a gendered division of household labor have been posited (Blair Lichter, 1991). One explanation suggests that household responsibilities continue to be shouldered by women because women are socialized to adopt this as part of their identity as a woman. Therefore, many women may discourage help from their husbands because this challenges their self-identity. Recognizing that husbands contribute more to household duties upon retirement (Atchley, 1992), regardless of their wives’ employment status, may suggest a potential source of conflict as men encroach upon what has traditionally been accepted as a â€Å"woman’s domain.† This may be an issue that is more pronounced for individuals in age discrepant relationships who transition into retirement at different times. Although Kuliks (1999; 2001) results do not suggest that age discrepancy may exacerbate potential sources of conflict that couples in age-similar marriages have alread y confronted and resolved, it is important to recognize that no specific data regarding age similarity between partners was provided. Moreover, Kuliks (2001) study focused on Israeli couples who were in dual-earner marriages. As a result, the potential impact of culture may fail to extend to American couples. Kurdek (1998) provides further support for the link between gendered divisions of household labor and gender socialization. Kurdek examined the relation among division of household labor, gender role orientation, and marital satisfaction. The link between gender role orientation and division of household labor were consistent with Kulik’s (1999; 2001) findings. Although the women in Kulik’s sample shouldered more of the household responsibilities than men, the division of household labor was not significantly related to marital satisfaction. According to Kulik, this may be because an inequitable division of household labor is consistent with traditional views regarding the roles of men and women and is therefore congruent with the expectations of both husbands and wives. Ward’s (1993) study provides additional insight regarding the relation between marital satisfaction and the division of household labor. Unlike Kurdek (1998), Ward’s study provided evidence supporting the link between the division of household labor and marital satisfaction for wives, but not husbands. Ward analyzed the National Survey of Families and Households, which conducted interviews with a national probability sample of 13,017 participants. According to Ward, unequal divisions of household labor are not responsible for gender differences in marital satisfaction. The link to marital satisfaction is based on whether wives consider these labor divisions to be fair. Ward used multivariate analyses to investigate the predictors of perceived fairness in household labor and marital happiness. According to his findings, women participate in household tasks more often than men do (means: women=37, men=15, p=.0001). Perceived fairness of household chores appeared to be rel ated to marital happiness. For women, unfairness to self is related to lower happiness, χ2 (1, N=538) =38.4, p Several studies have linked gender role ideologies to the division of household labor (Kurdek, 1998; Gerson 2004; Mannino Deutsch, 2007; Mickelson, Claffey, Williams 2006; Robinson Hunter, 2008), yet the impact of aging on attitudes toward sex roles remains unclear (Kulik, 1999). Inglehart, Norris, and Welzel (2003) found evidence that younger adults displayed more modern gender role ideologies when compared to older adults. Inglehar, Norris, and Welzel (2003) note that the differences between younger and older couples may reflect differences in socialization related to cohort. As a result, couples who are age discrepant may be more likely to experience conflicts related to the impact of cohort differences on attitudes toward sex roles. However, Burke and Cast (1997) note that newlyweds who have a newborn during the first year of marriage experience changes in gender identity that accompany gender role taking. According to Burke and Cast, gender-role-taking yields more congruency between partners with regard to gender identity. The implications of Burke and Castâ⠂¬â„¢s study indicate that retirement may present the same opportunity for gender role taking among age discrepant marriages that the birth of a child does for newlyweds. These are issues that have yet to be examined among older couples and age discrepant marriages in particular. Researchers have attempted to explore power, decision-making, and relationship satisfaction differences between males and females for years. There appears to be some sex difference in the levels of satisfaction within marriages. For example, there seems to be a difference in relationship satisfaction based on gender roles and ideologies (Mickelson, Claffey, Williams, 2006; Sprecher, 2001). One predictor of relationship satisfaction may be equal participation in household work. Many women perceive the contribution by their partner, however limited, as an expression of love or support (Pina Bengtson, 1993). Similarly, other studies suggest that balanced roles in relation to equal division of household labor (Mickelson, Claffey, Williams, 2006; Rachlin, 1987) and equal contributions to child-rearing (Coltrane, 2000; Dempsey, 2002; Yogman Bragelton, 1986) led to higher levels of relationship satisfaction. Tsang and colleagues (2003) and Marks and colleagues (2001) also concluded that when both spouses were employed full-time, relationship satisfaction was increased (Marks, Huston, Johnson, Macdermid, 2001; Tsang, Harvey, Duncan, Sommer, 2003). REFERENCES Amato, P., Johnson, D., Booth, A., Rogers, S. (2003). Continuity and change in mariatl quarily between 1980 and 2000. Journal of Marriage and the Family , pp. 1-22. Atchely, R. (1993). Retirement and marial satisfaction. In M. Szinovacz, D. Ekerdt, B. Vinick, Families and Retirement (pp. 145-158). Newbury Park, California: Sage. Blair, S., Lichter, D. (1991). Measuring the dividion of household labor. Journal of Family Issues , 12, 91-113. Burke, P., Cast, A. (1997). Stability and change int he gender identieies of newly married couples. Social Psychology Quarterly , 60, 277-290. Chafetz, J.S. (1974). Masculine/feminine or human? An overview of the sociologt of sex roles. Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock. Chafetz, J.S. (1990). Gender equaily: An intergrated theory of stability and change. Newburry Park, CA: Sage Publications. Gerson, K. (2004). Understanding work and family through a gender lens. Community, Work and Family , 7 (2), 163-178. Grote, N., Clark, M. (2001). Perceiving unfairness in the family: Cause or consequece of marital distress? Journal of Personaility and Social Psychology , 80 (2), pp. 281-293. Henslin, J. (2007). Sociology: A down-to- earth approach (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Inglehart, R., Norris, P., and Welzel, C. (2003). Gender equality and democracy. Comparative Sociology , 1 (3-4), pp. 321-346. Judge, T. A., and Livingston, B. A.. Is the gap more than gender? A longitudinal analysis of gender, gender role orientation, and earnings. Journal of Applied Psychology 93.5 (2008): 994-1012. Web. 2 Apr. 2014. Kulik, L.(1998). The effect of gender and social environment on gender role perceptions and sex identity: A comparative study of kibbutz and urban adolescence in Israel.Journal of Community Psychology, 30(6), 533-548. Kulik, L. (1999, May-June). Continuity and discontinuity in marital life after retirement: Life orientations, gender role ideology, intimacy, and satisfaction. The Journal of Contemporary Human Services , 286-294. Kulik, L.(2001). The impact of men’s and women’s retirement on marital relations: A comparative analysis. Journal of Women and Aging, 13(2), 21-37. Kulik, L.(2002). Marital equality and the quality of long term marriage in later life.Ageing and Society, 22,459-481. Kurdek, L. (1998). The allocation of household labor in gay, lesbian, and heterosexual married couples. In D. Anselmi, A. Law, Questions of gender: Perspectives and paradoxes (pp. 582-591). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill. Mannino, C., Deutsch, F. (2007). Changing the dividion of houselold labor: A negotiated process between partners. Rex Roles , 56, pp. 309-324. Marks, S., Huston, T., Johnson, E., MacDermid, S. (2001). Role balance among white married couples. Journal of Marriage and Family , 63, 1083-1098. Mickelson, K., Claffey, S., Williams, S. (2006). The moderating role of gender and gender role attitudes on the link between spousal support and marital quailty. Rex Roles , 55 (73), 81-91. Offen, K. (1990). Feminism and sexual difference in histroical perpective. In D. Rhode, Theortical perspectives on sexual differences (pp. 13-20). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale Schoen, R., Astone, N., Rothert, K., Standish, N., Kim, Y. (2002). Womens employment, marital happiness, and divorce. Social Forces , 81 (2), 643-663. Tsang, L., Harvey, C., Duncan, K., Sommer, R. (2003). The effect of children on marital happiness: Evidence from a longitudinal sample. Journal of Family and Economic Issues , 24, 5-26. Ward, R. (1993). Marital happiness adn houshold equilty in later life. Journal of Marriage Family , 55, 427-438.